Homepage of Andreas Hölzl

General / Panchronic Comparative Linguistics

Bibliography of Kra languages

by Andreas Hölzl, 10.08.2026

The Gelao-speaking village Dagouchang 大狗场 in Guizhou province (foto by A.H., 2025).

Overview

The Kra languages are one branch of the Kra-Dai (formerly Tai-Kadai) family mainly spoken in Southwest China and Northern Vietnam. They include varieties of Gelao 仡佬, Laji 拉基 (aka Lachi, Lati), Laha 拉哈, Paha 巴哈, Buyang 布央, Rongtong Buyang 荣屯布央 (aka Yerong, Yalhong), and Pubiao 普标 (aka Qabiao). The dialectal diversity especially within Gelao is extreme and it is more accurate to speak of different Gelao languages rather than dialects (e.g., Duoluo, Hagei, Klau, Pudi, Red Gelao, Mulao, Zoulei). Whether the extinct Yi 羿 language is in fact a variety of Gelao as assumed by Zhang Jimin remains to be determined with certainty.

Given the conservative character of Kra languages, for instance in preserving numerals that have been replaced with Chinese in most other languages (except Hlai), they play an important role in the potential connection with Austronesian languages (i.e., the hypothetical Austro-Tai family).

But despite their importance for comparative research, they remain underresearched. Since most of the data have been published in Chinese, they are are inaccessible to many scholars outside of China.

This preliminary bibliography includes the most important published studies of these languages that are currently available to me. A focus is on grammatical descriptions and comparative studies. Additional publications, such as those in Vietnamese, will be added in the future.

Andy Hsiu made many audio recordings for Kra languages available on Zenodo (see here for an overview).

Bibliography

  • Benedict, Paul K. 1942. Thai, Kadai, and Indonesian: A new alignment in South-Eastern Asia. American Anthropologist 44. 576-601. (the hypothesis was later made more plausible by Ostapirat, Smith, etc.)
  • Benedict, Paul K. 1966. Austro-Thai. Behavior Science Notes 1. 227-61.
  • Benedict, Paul K. 1990. Kadai linguistics: The rules of engagement. In Edmondson, Jerold and David Solnit (eds.), Comparative Kadai: Linguistic studies beyond Tai, 323-340. Arlington: Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of Texas at Arlington.
  • Benedict, Paul K. 1992. Laha reexamined. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 15(2). 207-218.
  • Bo, Wenze 薄文泽. 2003. Mulaoyu yanjiu 木佬语研究. Beijing: Zhongyang minzu daxue chubanshe.
  • Bonifacy, Auguste. 1905. Etude sur les langues parlées par les
  • populations de la haute Riviére Claire. Bulletin de l’École française d’Extrême-Orient 5(3/4). 306-327.
  • Bonifacy, Auguste. 1906. Etude sur les coutumes et la langue des La-ti. Bulletin de l’École française d’Extrême-Orient 6. 271-78.
  • Bonifacy, Auguste. 1908. Etude sur les coutumes et la langue des Lolo et des La-qua du Haut Tonkin. Bulletin de l’École française d’Extrême-Orient 8: 531-58.
  • Buckley, Christopher D., Emma Kopp, Thomas Pellard, Robin J. Ryder & Guillaume Jacques. 2025. Contrasting modes of cultural evolution: Kra-Dai languages and weaving technologies. Evolutionary Human Sciences 7. e35.
  • Chamberlain, James R. 2016. Kra-Dai and the Proto-History of South China and Vietnam. Journal of the Siam Society 104. 27-78.
  • Chen, Qiguang 陈其光. 1984. Pubiao yu gaikuang 普标语概况. Zhongyang minzu xueyuan xuebao 中央民族学院学报 1984(4). 62-75.
  • Clarke, Samuel R. 1911. Among the tribes in South-West China. London: China Inland Mission.
  • Clarke, Samuel R. 1904. The Miao and Chungchia tribes of Kueichow province. East of Asia Magazine 3. 193-207.
  • de Beauclair, Inez. 1970 [1946]. The Keh Lao of Kweichow and their history according to the Chinese records. In Lou Tsu-k’uang & Wolfram Eberhard (ed.), Tribal cultures of Southwest China, 146-189. Taipei: The Orient Cultural Service.
  • de Beauclair, Inez. 1970 [1956]. The representatives of the Lao in Kweichow Province. In Lou Tsu-k’uang & Wolfram Eberhard (ed.), Tribal cultures of Southwest China, 206-226. Taipei: The Orient Cultural Service.
  • Edmondson, Jerold A. 2008. Kra or Kadai languages. In Anthony V. N. Diller, Jerold A. Edmondson & Yongxian Luo (eds.), The Tai-Kadai languages, 653-677. London: Routledge.
  • Ai, Jierui 艾杰瑞 [Edmondson, Jerold A.]. 2011. 仡央语分类补议. Guangxi minzu daxue xuebao (zhexue shehui kexue ban) 广西民族大学学报( 哲学社会科学版) 33(2). 8-14. (an English version entitled Notes on the subdivisions in Kra is provided online by the author)
  • Edmondson, Jerold A. & Kenneth J. Gregerson. 1997. Outlying Kam-Tai: Notes on Ta Mit Laha. Mon-Khmer Studies: A Journal of Southeast Asian Linguistics and Languages 27. 257-269.
  • Gerner, Matthias. 2019. Highlights from three language families in Southwest China. Duisburg: RFLR. (pages 21-60 are on Kra-Dai)
  • He, Jiashan 贺嘉善. 1981. Gelaoyu gaikuang 讫佬语概况. Minzu yuwen 民族语文 4. 67-76.
  • He, Jiashan 贺嘉善. 1982. Gelaoyu de xishu 仡佬语的系属. Minzu yuwen 民族语文 1998(5). 43-49.
  • He, Jiashan 贺嘉善. 1983. Gelaoyu jianzhi 仡佬语简志. Beijing: Minzu chubanshe.
  • He, Yancheng 何彦诚. 2008. Hongfeng gelaoyu gaikuang 红丰仡佬语概况. Minzu yuwen 民族语文 6. 66-79.
  • He, Yancheng 何彦诚. 2014. Hongfeng gelaoyu de rencheng daici xitong 红丰仡佬语的人称代词系统. Minzu yuwen 民族语文 2014(1). 13-20.
  • Hsiu, Andrew C. 2013. The Gelao languages: Preliminary classification and state of the art. Paper presented at the SEALS XXIII, May 2013 Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.
  • Kang, Zhongde 康忠德. 2011. Judu gelaoyu cankao yufa 居都仡佬语参考语法. Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe.
  • Kosaka Ryūichi 小坂隆一, Zhou Guoyan 周国炎, Li Jinfang 李锦芳. 1998. Geyang yuyan cihui ji 仡央语言词汇集. Guiyang: Guizhou minzu chubanshe.
  • Kosaka, Ryuichi. 2000. A descriptive study of the Lachi language: Syntactic description, historical reconstruction and genetic relation. Tokyo: Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. (Doctoral dissertation.)
  • Li, Jinfang 李锦芳. 1999. Buyang yu yanjiu 布央语研究. Beijing: Zhongyang minzu daxue chubanshe.
  • Li, Jinfang 李锦芳. 2006. Xinan diqu binwei yuyan diaocha yanjiu 西南地区濒危语言调查研究. Beijing: Zhongyang minzu daxue chubanshe.
  • Li, Jinfang. 2019. Language contact between Geyang and Yi. Language and Linguistics 28(2). 13–24.
  • Li, Jinfang 李锦芳 & Ai Jierui 艾杰瑞 [Jerold A. Edmondson]. 2007. Zhongyue hong gelaoyu bijiao 中越红仡佬语比较. Minzu yuwen 民族语文 2007(3). 31-37.
  • Li, Jinfang 李锦芳 & Han Linlin 韩林林. 2009. Hong gelao yu gaikuang 红仡佬语概况. Minzu yuwen 民族语文 6. 63-79.
  • Li, Jinfang & Luo Yongxian. 2006. Notes on Paha Buyang. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 29(1). 1-39.
  • Li, Jinfang & Luo Yongxian. 2010. The Buyang language of South China. Canberra: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University.
  • Li, Jinfang 李锦芳 & Xu Xiaoli 徐晓丽. 2004. Bigong gelaoyu gaikuang 比贡仡佬语概况. Minzu yuwen 民族语文 3. 70-81.
  • Li, Jinfang 李锦芳 & Yang Liuyan 阳柳艳. 2015. Longlin wantao gelaoyu miaoxie yanjiu 隆林弯桃仡佬语描写研究. Baise xueyuan xuebao 百色学院学报 28(5). 40-51.
  • Li, Jinfang 李锦芳 & Yang Liuyan 阳柳艳. 2016. Guizhou shuicheng gelaoyu chutan 贵州水城仡佬语初探. Minzu yuwen 民族语文 2016(3). 70-81.
  • Li, Jinfang 李锦芳, Yang Liuyan 阳柳艳 & Wang Jizeng 王吉增. 2015. Guanling mawa gelaoyu jilu yanjiu 关岭麻洼仡佬语记录研究. Guizhou minzu daxue xueban (zhexue shehui kexue ban) 贵州民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 152(4). 1-10.
  • Li, Jinfang 李锦芳 & Zhou, Guoyan 周国炎. 1999. Geyang yuyan tansuo 仡央语言探索. Beijing: Zhongyang minzu daxue chubanshe.
  • Li, Xia & Li Jinfang Luo Yongxian. 2014. A grammar of Zoulei (Southwest China). Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
  • Liang, Min 梁敏. 1989. Laji yu 拉基语. Yuyan yanjiu 语言研究 17. 136, 152-160.
  • Liang, Min 粱敏, Zhang Junru 张均如 & Li Yunbing 李云兵. 2007. Pubiaoyu yanjiu 普标语研究. Beijing: Renmin chubanshe.
  • Liao, Hanbo & Ryan Gehrmann. 2025. Kra-Dai tonogenesis in Austro-Tai perspective. Diachronica 42(3/4). 382–405.
  • Long, Haiyan 龙海燕 & Cha Jiyan 蔡吉燕. 2010. Judu, dagouchang gelaoyu bijiao yanjiu 居都、大狗场仡佬语比较研究. Guizhou minzu xueyuan xuebao (zhexue shehui kexue ban) 贵州民族学院学报(哲学社会科学版) 123(5). 87-91.
  • Lunet de Lajonquière, Étienne. 1906. Ethnographie du Tonkin septentrional. Paris: Ernest Leroux.
  • Luo, Changmu 骆长木 et al. 2009. Pingzheng gelaoyu 平正仡佬语. Zunyi: Zunyi xian pingzheng gelaozu xiang renmin zhengfu.
  • Luo, Yongxian. 2017. Tai-Kadai languages. In Rint Sybesma (ed.), Encyclopedia of Chinese language and linguistics, vol. 4., 249–257. Leiden: Brill.
  • Mo, Haiwen 莫海文. 2016. Rongtun buyang yu cankao yufa 荣屯布央语参考语法. Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe.
  • Norquest, Peter. 2021. Classification of (Tai-)Kadai/Kra-Dai languages. In Paul Sidwell & Mathias Jenny (eds.), The languages and linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia: A comprehensive guide, 225-246. Berlin: de Gruyter Mouton.
  • Ostapirat, Weera. 1995. Notes on Laha final -l. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 18(1). 173-181.
  • Ostapirat, Weera. 2000a. Proto-Kra. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 23. 1-251.
  • Ostapirat, Weera. 2000b. Kra: The Tai least-known sister languages. Bulletin of the National Museum of Ethnology 25. 177-202.
  • Ostapirat, Weera. 2005. Kra-Dai and Austronesian: Notes on phonological correspondences and vocabulary distribution. In Laurent Sagart, Roger M. Blench & Alicia Sanchez-Mazas (eds.), The peopling of East Asia, 107-131. London: Routledge.
  • Ostapirat, Weera. 2018. Macrophyletic trees of East Asian languages reexamined. Senri Ethnological Studies 98. 107-121.
  • Pittayaporn, Pittayawat. 2021. Typological profile of Kra-Dai languages. In Paul Sidwell & Mathias Jenny (eds.), The languages and linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia: A comprehensive guide, 433-468. Berlin: de Gruyter Mouton.
  • Reid, Lawrence A. 2006. Austro-Tai hypotheses. In Keith Brown (ed.), The encyclopedia of language and linguistics, 2nd edn., 609-610. Oxford: Elsevier.
  • Robert, M. 1914. Notice sur les Lati. Revue d’ethnographie et de sociologie 4. 338-352.
  • Sagart, Laurent. 2005. Tai-Kadai as a subgroup of Austronesian. In Laurent Sagart, Roger Blench & Alicia Sánchez-Mazas (eds.), The peopling of East Asia, 177-181. London: Routledge. (the proposal is not widely accepted)
  • Sagart, Laurent. 2016. The wider connections of Austronesian. Diachronica 33. 255-281.
  • Sagart, Laurent. 2019. A model of the origin of Kra-Dai tones. Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale 48 (1). 1-29.
  • Samarina, Irina Vladimirovna / Самарина, Ирина Владимировна, Ol’ga Mikhailovna Mazo / Ольга Михайловна Мазо, Nguyen Van Loi / Нгуен Ван Лой & Nguyen Huu Hoanh / Нгуен Хыу Хоань. 2011. Jazyki gelao: materialy k sopostavitel’nomu slovarju kadajskix jazykov / Языки гэлао: материалы к сопоставительному словарю кадайских языков [Gelao languages: Materials on the comparative vocabulary of the Kadai languages]. Moskva: Academia.
  • Schotter, Aloys. 1908, 1909, 1911. Notes ethnographiques sur les tribus du Kouy-tcheou (Chine). Anthropos 3(3). 397-425, 4(2). 318-353, 6(2). 318-344.
  • Smith, Alexander. 2021. More Austro-Tai comparisons and observations on vowel correspondences. Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society 15(3). 112-134.
  • Smith, Alexander. 2025. Reevaluating two schwa-initial reconstructions in Proto‑ and Pre‑Proto‑Austronesian numerals with some help from Kra‑Dai. Language and Linguistics 26(4). 673–694.
  • Solntseva, N. V. / Солнцева, Нина Васильевна & Xoang Van Ma / Хоанг Ван Ма. 1986. Jazyk laxa / Язык лаха. Moskva: Nauka.
  • Tao, Yuxin et al. 2023. Phylogenetic evidence reveals early Kra-Dai divergence and dispersal in the late Holocene. Nature Communications 14(6924). 1-10.
  • Wang, Huairong 王怀榕 & Li Xia 李霞. 2007. Sanchong gelaoyu gaikuang 三冲仡佬语概况. Minzu yuwen 民族语文 2. 65-81.
  • Zhan, Shengping 占升平. 2012. Gelaozu fangyan bijiao yanjiu 仡佬族方言比较研究. Beijing: Minzu chubanshe.
  • Zhan, Shengping 占升平. 2013. Gelaoyu yanjiu gaiguan 仡佬语研究概观. Hezhou xueyuan xuebao 贺州学院学报 29(3). 69-77.
  • Zhang, Jimin 张济民. 1986. Gelaoyu zai minzuxue yanjiu zhong de zhongyao diwei 仡佬语在民族学研究中的重要地位. Guizhou minzu yanjiu 贵州民族研究 2. 36-49.
  • Zhang, Jimin 张济民. 1990. Guizhou mulaozu yu gelaozu de guanxi 贵州木佬族与仡佬族的关系. Guizhou minzu yanjiu 贵州民族研究 41(1). 126-141.
  • Zhang, Jimin 张济民. 1992. Lajiyu yu gelaoyu de guanxi 拉基语与仡佬语的关系. Minzu yuwen 民族语文 1992(3). 19-27.
  • Zhang, Jimin 张济民. 1993. Gelaoyu yanjiu 仡佬语研究. Guiyang: Guizhou daxue chubanshe.
  • Zhang, Jimin 张济民. 2006 [1985]. Dafang pudi gelaoyu diaocha 大方普底仡佬语调查. In Guizhousheng minzu shi wuweiyuanhui 贵州省民族事务委员会 (eds.), Guizhou “liushan liushui” minzu diaocha ziliao xuanbian, minzu yuyan juan 贵州“六山六水”民族调查资料选编，民族语言卷, 143-178. Guiyang: Guizhou minzu chubanshe.
  • Zhang, Jimin 张济民. 2006 [1986]. Qinglong gelaoyu diaocha 晴隆仡佬语调查. In Guizhousheng minzu shi wuweiyuanhui 贵州省民族事务委员会 (eds.), Guizhou “liushan liushui” minzu diaocha ziliao xuanbian, minzu yuyan juan 贵州“六山六水”民族调查资料选编，民族语言卷, 179-206. Guiyang: Guizhou minzu chubanshe.
  • Zhang, Jimin 张济民. 2006 [1989]. Anshun gelaoyu diaocha 安顺仡佬语调查. In Guizhousheng minzu shi wuweiyuanhui 贵州省民族事务委员会 (eds.), Guizhou “liushan liushui” minzu diaocha ziliao xuanbian, minzu yuyan juan 贵州“六山六水”民族调查资料选编，民族语言卷, 207-223. Guiyang: Guizhou minzu chubanshe.
  • Zhang, Jimin 张济民. 2006 [1990]. Puding gelaoyu diaocha 普定仡佬语调查. In Guizhousheng minzu shi wuweiyuanhui 贵州省民族事务委员会 (eds.), Guizhou “liushan liushui” minzu diaocha ziliao xuanbian, minzu yuyan juan 贵州“六山六水”民族调查资料选编，民族语言卷, 224-239. Guiyang: Guizhou minzu chubanshe.
  • Zhang, Jimin 张济民. 2006 [1991]. Gelao yu fangyan tuyu huafen diaocha 仡佬语方言土语划分调查. In Guizhousheng minzu shi wuweiyuanhui 贵州省民族事务委员会 (eds.), Guizhou “liushan liushui” minzu diaocha ziliao xuanbian, minzu yuyan juan 贵州“六山六水”民族调查资料选编，民族语言卷, 240-253. Guiyang: Guizhou minzu chubanshe.
  • Zhang, Yongbin 张永斌. 2011. Qianxibei minzu zajuqu yuyan shengtai yu yuyan baohu yanjiu 黔西北民族杂居区语言生态与语言保护研究. Beijing: Zhongyang minzu daxue. (Doctoral dissertation.)
  • Zhou, Guoyan 周国炎. 2004. Gelaozu muyu shengtai yanjiu 仡佬族母语生态研究. Beijing: Minzu chubanshe.